Italian language in Romania

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The Italian language in Romania has been widespread since the mid-19th century. The linguistic similarity between Romanian and Italian made and continues to make rapid learning possible by facilitating and encouraging emigration to and from their respective countries.

In Romania, Italian is a recognized language of a linguistic minority due to the 2005 National Law on the Status of Minorities and is being learned as a foreign language by thousands of students, also with a view to a progressive recovery of their origins by the descendants of immigrants.

Linguistic correspondences between Italian and Romanian[edit]

An important fact for linguistic contacts between Italy and Romania is the similarity between their respective national languages.

Studies on this similarity, and in general on the linguistic concordances of Romanian and its dialects with other Romance languages and dialects, were initiated during the nineteenth century when, with the Transylvanian School, a cultural movement to rediscover the Latin origins of the Romanian language began. Numerous philological researches were conducted from the middle of the century to investigate and document these origins, and no less important was the impetus of these scholars in introducing the use of the Latin alphabet in Romanian instead of the Cyrillic alphabet.[1]

General features of Romanian[edit]

See also: Romanian language

Romanian is, among the Romance languages, the closest one to Italian. The grammatical structure preserves the Latin declensions of the feminine singular genitive and dative, vocative, the neuter gender, and the four conjugations. A facilitating factor in the acquisition of Italian by Romanians is the similarity between the phonetic systems. The orthography of both languages has a good correspondence between phonemes and graphemes and uses similar systems to represent identical sounds in both Italian and Romanian, including: ce - ci - chi - ge - gi - ghe - ghi.

The Romanian phonological system includes all the phonemes of Italian except for a few consonant sounds: the [ʣ] of zaino, zero, the [ʎ] of figlio, foglia, and the [ɲ] of gnomo, regno.[2]

Paralelism între limba română și italiană (1841)[edit]

The parallelism and relationship between the Italian and Romanian languages were dealt with extensively by Heliade Rădulescu, a politician, scholar, and militant for national unity, in the work Parallelism between the Romanian and Italian languages (Paralelism între limba română și italiană), in which he advocates first the simplification, then the total abolition of the Cyrillic alphabet, and the elimination from the language of non-Latin elements that were to be replaced with Italian words.[3]

Heliade proposes a Romanian orthography inspired partly by Italian and partly influenced by the etymological principles of the Transylvanian School, theorizing a massive lexical Italianization, with the creation of an Italo-Romanian language.

In the essay he points out a large number of largely Italian neologisms that serve to demonstrate how, at a time when the influence of French culture was strong, the Italian language also served as a model and exerted an influence on Romanian language and culture.

To Italian neologisms, Heliade assigns the same ennobling and magnifying function that Latinisms, elevated synonyms, learned and rare forms have in the Italian literary language.[4]

Italian loanwords for which Romanian has no equivalent[5]
Romanian Italian
afabil affabile
adorabil adorabile
colosal colossal
implacabil implacabile
inefabil ineffabile
inerte inerti
mistico mistica
pervers perverso o pervertito
suav suave
venerabil venerabile

However, when he goes so far as to argue that Italian and Romanian are not different languages, but dialects derived from Latin, and to advocate a Romanian-Italian language with the need to replace Romanian words with "superior" Italian ones, he cannot avoid the criticism of several literary writers and scholars, including Mihai Eminescu.[6]

The concordances of the Romanian language with southern Italian dialects[edit]

Studies on Italo-Romanian concordances saw their pivotal moment in the studies of Iorgu Iordan, published serially in the journal "Arhiva" between 1923 and 1928.[7]

The scholar theorized the concordances of Romanian with Italo-southern dialects, trying to prove the existence of mutual relations between former Dacia and southern Italy until the 5th century.

In 1956, Italian linguist Giovanni Alessi in his article Concordanze lexicali tra i dialetti romeni e quelli calabresi,[8] (Lexical concordances between Romanian and Calabrian dialects), did not only deal with lexical facts, but extended his observations to the syntagmas in which the terms recur. The scholar showed that certain terms that were believed to be preserved only in Romanian have equivalents in Calabrian dialects, such as:

  • Romanian grangur - Calabrian gravulu
  • Romanian luntre - Calabrian luntri

Differential Object Marking in Romanian and Sicilian[edit]

Linguistic similarity between Romanian and southern dialects is also found in the case of the Sicilian language.

The phenomenon of Differential Object Marking (abbreviated as DOM), or Prepositional Accusative, is grammaticalized and stable in Romanian, a Romance language with a much richer case system than the depleted one of Sicilian. In Sicilian, the phenomenon is present less systematically than in Romanian, perhaps due to the lack of established grammatical rules and the influence of the Italian language, which lacks the differential marking phenomena of the Direct Object.

From typological studies, it has been observed that the main parameters that can influence DOM are the traits of animacy, definiteness and topicality. Differential Object Marking is more sensitive to the parameter of definiteness for Romanian, while it is more sensitive to the parameter of animacy for Sicilian.[9]

According to Case Marking Theory, the relationship between the elements of a sentence is shown as much by their morphology as by the word order within a sentence. Romanian inherited five cases from Latin: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and vocative. The nominative, accusative, dative, and genitive cases have the same endings for the noun, while all cases have different forms for the personal pronoun. In Sicilian, on the other hand, case traces can be seen in the tonic first and second-person pronouns in the accusative and dative.[10]

Clitic doubling in Romanian and Sicilian[edit]

Both Romanian and Sicilian present the phenomenon of clitic doubling, that is, a double expression of the direct or indirect complement through a referential nominal and a co-referential clitic. The causative accusative or dative form is attributed to the clitic by the verb, and it agrees in gender and number with the direct or indirect object.[11]

Examples of clitic doubling in Romanian and Sicilian[11]
Italian Sicilian Romanian
Ho visto Giovanni U vitti a Giuvanni L-am vãzut pe Ion
Ho dato a Maria un libro Ci detti a Maria u libru I am dat Mariei o carte

The Vorposten area[edit]

In central Basilicata, within the Lausberg area, lies an area, called Vorposten, with Romanian-equivalent vowels, an obvious compromise between the "Sardinian" system in the south and the "common Romance" system in the north. This is an area in which, on the one hand, the Latin tonic vowel Ĭ collapses into the same outcome with Ē and Ĕ, and on the other hand there is the equalization of Ŭ with Ū and of Ŏ with Ō for the velar tonics. An asymmetrical tonic vowel system is thus delineated, a compromise between the evolved vowel system of Western-Romance and the archaic system of Sardinian, which within the Romance languages finds its only counterpart in the Romanian vowel system.[12]

Italian emigration to Romania[edit]

Historical migration[edit]

Since the 13th century, the coasts of present-day Romania were affected by the trading activities of the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice. However, it would be necessary to wait until the second half of the nineteenth century to see a resumption of contacts between Italy and Romania, which until then had been almost absent.

The first stable and substantial migrations from Italy were to the former principalities of Wallachia and Moldova, which became autonomous from the Ottoman Empire in 1878 and became the Kingdom of Romania in 1881, and the area of Transylvania, then part of the Austrian Empire.[13]

Those who initially emigrated were Italian families from the Triveneto, an extremely poor area also included in the Austrian Empire.[14] Such moves were thus facilitated by Austria as part of a policy of internal migration among the poorer and border regions of the Empire.[15]

In the Kingdom of Romania, on the other hand, Italian emigration was incentivized by the Romanian authorities as the Romanian ruling class felt the strategic need to strengthen the link with Latinity in order to consolidate, on the one hand, the identity of the country, surrounded by "a sea of Slavs," and, on the other hand, to proceed with the "Romanization" of the newly annexed territories.[16]

The Italians who settled in Romania came largely from northern Italy, from the western regions of Aosta Valley, Piedmont, Lombardy, and Liguria, but especially from the eastern regions of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, Veneto, and Trentino-Alto Adige. Their stay was facilitated by the similar cultural values and especially the easy-to-learn language. With the outbreak of the Great War, almost all Italian workers who had retained their citizenship had to return home, recalled to arms. With the conflict over, the flows began again only to come to a halt with the deportations of World War II and the advent of the communist regime, which led to the extinguishment of the Italian community by closing schools, churches and activities.

In the 1990s, after the fall of Ceausescu's communist regime, migration flows from Italy resumed and Italian emigrants were granted ethnic minority status and the right to elect their own parliamentarians.[17]

A 2009 report indicates that Romania is home to about two hundred thousand Italians, centralized mainly in Banat and Transylvania, mostly employed in the restaurant industry. Italy continues to be since 2006, the leading investor country in terms of the number of registered companies, with about 20 percent of the total active presence, and there are 26,984 Italian companies employing 800,000 people.[18] The 2021 Romanian census recorded 4039 ethnic Italians.[19]

Italians in the Dobruja region[edit]

At the end of the 19th century, thousands of families, mainly from Veneto and Friuli, settled in the coastal region of Dobruja, "where the climate was benign and the land munificent."[16] Italians were mainly employed in the construction industry, as miners, loggers or farmers.

According to statistics,[20] in 1899 there were 1,391 Italians living in Dobruja; by 1928 the number grew to 1,993, representing one-fifth of the Italian population in Romania. Between the late 1800s and 1945, a total of 130,000 Italians emigrated to Romania, most of whom returned home at the end of World War II.[21]

Italian and its dialects in Greci[edit]

At the beginning of the 20th century, 111 Italians lived in Greci, a village on the banks of the Danube in the historical region of Dobruja.[22]

According to recent studies by Amelia Toader,[23][24] about 40 families lived in the village in 1972, of which 20 were of Bellunese origin.

As of the 2002 census, the population of Greci is reported to be 5,656, with 94 Italians now in the third and fourth generations, fifth in some cases. Representatives of the third generation (who are now about sixty years old) speak Romanian as their first language, but many also speak Italian and Bellunese or Friulian dialect, steeped in Romanian expressions.

According to the testimonies of residents, including the president of the Association of Friulians of Greci Otilia Bataiola,[25] initially marriages took place only between Italians, and for daily communication, within the walls of the house, dialects were used, Friulian or Venetian depending on the origin.

Beginning with the second generation, mixed marriages began with members of a growing Romanian community: the beginning of the twentieth century was in fact marked by the policies of ethnic colonization and cultural homogenization of Dobruja implemented by the Romanian government, aimed at establishing an indigenous majority, thus counterbalancing the Turkish-Tatar presence that had been predominant until then.

The preservation of the language was made possible by religious celebrations in Italian in the village's Catholic church, held once a month, and by Italian courses at the village school.

The village has the Catholic church of Santa Lucia, built between 1904 and 1912 through a donation from the Vals family, and an Italian school, founded and built in 1932 by the Italians of the village. Teachers came directly from Italy, as did textbooks and uniforms for the children.

Until World War II, the priests were also Italian, but were later replaced by Romanian priests, initiating the loss of the use of the Italian language, also increased by the closure of the only Italian school in the village by the Romanian communist government.

The future of the Italians of Greci is at the center of academic discussion: some scholars[26] see the increase in mixed marriages and the closure of the granite quarries, the main occupation of Italian workers, as the main causes of the inevitable disappearance of the village's ethnic Italian community.

Timisoara, "the eighth province of Veneto"[edit]

The city of Timisoara, capital of the Timis County within the Banat region, has experienced a strong migration flow from Italy since the 1970s, particularly from the Northeastern provinces.[27]

The main industries, almost all foreign, come mainly from Germany, the United States and Italy. The district is called "the eighth province of Veneto" because of the high number of regional companies that have relocated production to the area: there are almost 27,000 Italian companies and, as of December 2002, the number of companies with Veneto capital participation present in Romania was 2,038.[28]

Geographical origin of the Venetian presence in Romania[29]
Province Number of firms % of total Venetian firms % of total Italian firms
Belluno 26 1,28% 0,21%
Padua 454 22,28% 3,67%
Rovigo 94 4,61% 0,76%
Treviso 434 21,30% 3,51%
Venice 225 11,04% 1,82%
Vicenza 417 20,46% 3,37%
Verona 388 19,04% 3,14%
Total 2038 100% 16,48%

The Venetian language is the city's second language, and two weeklies are printed in Italian: Sette giorni Archived 2020-09-21 at the Wayback Machine and il Gazzettino[30].

"Casa Faenza" in Timisoara[edit]

The city of Timisoara has been twinned with Faenza since 12/03/1991.[30]

Casa Faenza is a health facility active in Timisoara since the end of 2000, and is a semi-residential center for the treatment of the mental needs of children up to 16 years of age, built with the contribution of the Municipality of Faenza, the Faenza-Timisoara Friendship Committee, the Opere Pie, the Faenza section of the Italian Red Cross, several local companies and individual citizens.[31][32]

Antenna Veneto Romania[edit]

Antenna Veneto Romania, established through an agreement between the Foreign Center of the Veneto Chambers of Commerce and the Chamber of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture of Timisoara, serves as a counter for entrepreneurs from Veneto who intend to start or consolidate economic relations with Romania and for companies from Veneto that have already relocated to the country.[28]

During 2003, Antenna Veneto Romania concluded the first survey on the Venetian entrepreneurial presence in Romania. The survey is still the only quantitative analysis of the Venetian presence in Romania and, as far as Italian relocation is concerned, no complete official data are available to date.[33]

Linguistic minority and the Italian community[edit]

In Romania, Italian is a recognized language of a linguistic minority due to the 2005 National Law on the Status of Minorities.[citation needed]

Following the fall of the communist regime in 1989, the Romanian state granted Italian communities in the country the status of a linguistic minority and the right to be represented by their own parliamentarian in the Chamber of Deputies.[15]

Since 1999, an estimated 20,000 Italians have arrived in Romania, settling in Bucharest, the Timisoara area and Transylvania, employed mainly in the restaurant industry.[citation needed]

The Italian community is organized through the Association of Italians of Romania (in Romanian: Asociaţia Italienilor din România, abbreviated as RO.AS.IT), a group founded in 1993 in Suceava by descendants of Italian origin settled in the Bukovina area, eager to revive the unity of the community of Italians in Romania. In 2004, the president of the Suceava Association became a member of the Romanian Parliament, officially representing the Italian ethnic minority.[citation needed]

Thanks to the Association, the teaching of the Italian language in schools was reintroduced after sixty years of interruption and is now active at the "Dante Alighieri" High School in Bucharest.[citation needed]

Italian language and culture in Romania[edit]

Italian culture was introduced to Romania starting in the Middle Ages following a variety of routes. One point of reference was the relationship that Stephen the Great, Prince of Moldavia (1457-1504) had with the Republic of Venice and Pope Sixtus IV. The Moldavian prince maintained an extensive correspondence with the pontiff, who appointed him, after a large battle against the Turks, Athleta Christi, one of the highest titles in the Middle Ages.

In the relationship between the two cultures, the Romanians are the only Romance people who have retained the memory of Rome in their name. They always referred to each other as Rumâni, Români, while others called them Wallachians, Vlachs, Blachians, Volohi, which all meant "Romanic" or "speakers of a Romance language."[34]

Traveling in Transylvania, Moldavia and Wallachia in 1532, Francesco della Valle in fact wrote:

Their language is a little different from our Italian, they call themselves Romei in their language because they say they came anciently from Rome to inhabit that country, and if anyone asks if they can speak in the Wallachian language, they answer in this way: Sti Rominest? Which means: Do you know Romanian, for the language is corrupted (...).[35]

The Latin heritage has always represented the Romanians' strongest historical link with the West and has remained an important means of maintaining their identity over the centuries.

During the nineteenth century, the connections of culture and ideals between the two peoples, both of whom were involved in the struggle for national unity, intensified. A cult for Italy, the land of the Romans from which originated the army of Trajan, conqueror of Dacia, took root in the majority of Romanian intellectuals.[34]

It was in this context that, in 1848, the Transylvanian poet Andrei Mureşanu composed the Romanian national anthem (official until 1918), shortly after the conference of Wallachian and Moldavian revolutionaries (the Adunarea naţională de la Blaj). The anthem contains a significant passage in which the cultural roots and strong connection to Latinity are emphasized:

Deșteaptă-te, române, din somnul cel de moarte,

În care te-adânciră barbarii de tirani!
Acum ori niciodată, croiește-ți altă soarte,
La care să se-nchine și cruzii tăi dușmani.

Acum ori niciodată să dăm dovezi la lume
Că-n aste mâni mai curge un sânge de roman,
Și că-n a noastre piepturi păstrăm cu fală-un nume

Triumfător în lupte, un nume de Traian!
Awaken thee Romanian from your sleep of death

Into which you've been sunk by the barbaric tyrants.
Now or never, sow a new fate for yourself
To which even your cruel enemies will bow!

Now or never, let us show the world
That through these arms, Roman blood still flows;
And that in our chests we still proudly bear a name

Triumphant in battles, the name of Trajan!

Italian theater in Romania[edit]

In the context of the theatrical relations in the second half of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries between European countries, the relations between Romania and Italy are of particular interest. The presence of Italian performers on the Romanian stage was numerically greater than that of their French, German, or English counterparts,[36] and the Italian language in Romania was conveyed, as in the rest of the world, by theater and opera.

One of the most important phenomena that fostered the Romance Westernization of the Romanian literary language was the large influx of translations of French and Italian literature. In the eighteenth century, the figure of the Italian poet Pietro Metastasio predominates with no less than nine translated texts: Italian melodrama arrives in Romanian principalities in peculiar ways in that the translations are not so much intended for stage performance as for reading only; they are also based not on the original Italian text but on some translations into the Modern Greek language.[37]

In her essay Verismul italian şi literatura română. Teatrul italian în România: 1871-1911 (Italian Verism and Romanian Literature. Italian theater in Romania: 1871-1911),[38] author Corina Popescu analyzes a particular element of the link between Italy and Romania: the presence of Italian verist drama and that of the Italian realist-verist actor on the Romanian stage, considering the relationship between language, literature, dramaturgy and theater.

The study of Italian in Romania[edit]

The course of the nineteenth century witnessed a real expansion of Italian studies in Romania. Many intellectuals demanded the inclusion of the Italian language in Romanian schools, and associations and institutes for the promotion of Italian language and culture emerged.

The most renowned promoters of Italian language teaching in nineteenth-century Romania, as well as authors of grammars, manuals and handbooks for study, are the Italians Gerolamo Abbeatici, Orazio Spinazzolla, Gian Luigi Frollo and Ramiro Ortiz.[39]

Gerolamo Abbeatici[edit]

A teacher of Italian in Galaţi and Bucharest, he is known first and foremost as the author of manuals that testify to the zeal with which Bucharest's intellectuals attended Italian (and French) classes:

  • Gramatica Italiano-Romanu, intitulată Instructorul Italian, published in Galaţi and Bucharest, 1848;
  • Dialogu Italiano-Romanu, cu începuturi de Gramatica, în Lecţiuni. Dedicatu nobilei naţiuni române, Bucharest: Imprimeria Statului, numită Nifon, 1860-1862.

Orazio Spinazzolla[edit]

The Neapolitan Spinazzolla authored grammars (such as the Romanian Grammar and Romanian-Italian Dialogues, 1863) and miscellanies to stimulate interest in Italian literature.

Spinazzolla requested his transfer from his professorship at the Santo Sava School (1850-1870) to the newly founded University of Bucharest, where he was the originator of a chair of Italian language and literature.[40]

Gian Luigi Frollo[edit]

Frollo, a Venetian, was a professor at the King Charles I high schools in Brăila (1863-1869) and Matei Basarab in Bucharest (1869-1878), and a writer of grammars and dictionaries to provide schoolchildren with working tools:

  • Lecţiuni de limba şi literatura italiană. Elemente de Gramatică, Lecturi şi traducţiuni, Brăila, 1868;
  • Limba româna şi dialectele italiene, 1869.

As early as 1871, he denounced the "gallomania" of the coordinators of public education who, by placing the French language among the compulsory subjects and establishing a French chair in both universities, were proving to be more Catholic than the Pope. According to Frollo, the solution was precisely the study of Italian.

The professor demanded "that Italian be imposed by the authorities as it was a few years ago and as it still is in the trade schools, in the gymnasium in Brăila and the high school in Bârlad." His suggestion was to found a new chair in the Faculty of Letters: comparative philology of Romance languages and literatures.[39]

Ramiro Ortiz[edit]

A native of Chieti, he was sent to Romania in 1909 by the Italian Ministry of Education as a lecturer in Italian language and literature.

A specialist in Romance philology, Ramiro Ortiz was a professor at the University of Bucharest for 24 years, where he founded the Italian language and literature seminar and the journal Roma (1921-1933).

He is considered, as well, the founding father of the Italian Institute of Culture in Bucharest. From 1933 until his death, he was professor of Romance philology at the University of Padua, where, in 1937, he created the Romanian language and literature lectureship.[41]

Italian Cultural Institute of Bucharest[edit]

The Italian Cultural Institute of Bucharest[42] was founded in 1924 as a private institution through the efforts of a number of prominent Italian and Romanian intellectuals including Nicolae Iorga, Eugen Lovinescu, and Ramiro Ortiz, the latter holding the first chair of Italian language and literature in Romania since 1909.

In April 1933 the Institute of Culture became an official institution of the Italian State but would be closed in 1948 by order of the Communist authorities. This situation would last for twenty years, until it was reopened following the signing on August 8, 1967, of the new Cultural Agreement between Italy and Romania.

Since 2002, the headquarters has been located in the northern residential area of Bucharest, and has an exhibition space, a lecture hall, a library with more than 10,000 volumes, and a space for language courses.

The institute is the only organization in Romania that organizes Italian language proficiency certification exams in cooperation with the Universities for Foreigners of Perugia (CELI) and Siena (CILS, DITALS).[43]

The Italian School of Bucharest[edit]

In 1887, the presence in Bucharest of an Italian community of about 900 people is attested, which gave birth to a Mutual Aid Society and a school with a total of 83 pupils, 53 of whom were Italians.[44]

In 1901, the community founded a Cultural Circle and joined the Dante Alighieri Society led by Luigi Cazzavillan, a journalist from Arzignano, Vicenza, who after the Serbian-Turkish war, where he participated as a war correspondent, moved to Bucharest.

Cazzavillan invested heavily in the Italian school, which took the name Regina Margherita and was built in 1901 on the street that now bears his name. For forty-seven years the school contributed to the spread of Italian education and culture, until it was closed by communist authorities in 1948. Cazzavillan's name is also linked to the founding of several newspapers such as Universul, one of Romania's leading newspapers of the period, and Frăția romano–italiana, a newspaper in which he tried to highlight the common aspects of these two peoples.

In the late 1970s, due to openness of the communist regime, a new Italian school, Aldo Moro, was founded by a group of Italian diplomats. The school was supported with an annual grant from the Italian state until 2006, when it ceased support due to insufficient numbers of enrollment. To prevent the school's closure, the Italian association "Liberi di Educare" privatized it, however, failing to guarantee a viable educational offer.

In 2018, through contributions from Romanian parents, the school reopened in a new location in Bucharest and with a new educational program. The new Italian Dante Alighieri School is a bilingual high school open to all. The director in charge from 2019 is Dr. Ezio Peraro, and the principal is Prof. Tina Savoi.

See also[edit]

References[edit]

  1. ^ Marinella Lorinczi. "Lineamenti di storia grafematica della lingua romena (dalle origini fino al XXI secolo)" (PDF). Lineamenti di Storia Grafematica della Lingua Romena (Dalle Origini Fino al XXI Secolo). Università di Cagliari.
  2. ^ Rosanna Cima; Rita Finco. "I fondamenti della lingua romena". Imparare e insegnare tra lingue diverse. La Scuola.
  3. ^ "Enciclopedia Treccani - Ion Heliade Radulescu".
  4. ^ Dan Octavian Cepraga. "L'occidentalizzazione romanza del romeno letterario: Heliade Rădulescu e la traduzione della Gerusalemme Liberata". Diacronia. Università degli Studi di Padova.
  5. ^ "Ion Heliade Radulescu".
  6. ^ Rotondi (2017, pp. 47–62)
  7. ^ Iorgu Iordan (1923–1928). "Dialectele italiene de sud şi limba română". Arhiva.
  8. ^ Giovanni Alessi (1954). "Concordanze lessicali tra i dialetti rumeni e quelli calabresi". Annuario della Facoltà di Lettere e Filosofia di Bari.
  9. ^ Ana-Maria Braitor (2017). "Unità e diversità nella marcatura differenziale dell'oggetto diretto in rumeno e in siciliano" (PDF). Tesi di Dottorato. Università degli Studi di Palermo.
  10. ^ Ana-Maria Braitor (2017). "La teoria della Marcatura del Caso". Unità e diversità nella marcatura differenziale dell'oggetto diretto in rumeno e in siciliano. Unità e diversità nella marcatura differenziale dell'oggetto diretto in rumeno e in siciliano. Università degli Studi di Palermo: 17–21.
  11. ^ a b Ana-Maria Braitor (2017). "Il raddoppiamento clitico in rumeno e in siciliano". Unità e diversità nella marcatura differenziale dell'oggetto diretto in rumeno e in siciliano. Unità e diversità nella marcatura differenziale dell'oggetto diretto in rumeno e in siciliano. Università degli Studi di Palermo: 118–122.
  12. ^ Federica D’Andrea, Carmela Lavecchia, Francesca Vittoria Russo, Carminella Scarfiello, Anna Maria Tesoro, Francesco Villone (2017). "I dialetti: patrimoni culturali locali nella lingua". Ianua. Revista Philologica Romanica. 17. Università degli Studi della Basilicata: 133–168.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  13. ^ "Enciclopedia Treccani - Voce "Romania"".
  14. ^ "Articolo la Repubblica "Quando i clandestini eravamo noi e la Romania non voleva gli italiani"". Archived from the original on 1 May 2021.
  15. ^ a b Caritas (2008)
  16. ^ a b Andreea Raluca Torre. "The Italians in Romania. Ethnography of a village in Dobrogea". The Italians in Romania. Ethnography of a Village in Dobrogea. University College of London.
  17. ^ Mariana Minascurta (2017). "Comunicazione interculturale tra italiani e romeni". Comunicazione Interculturale Tra Italiani e Romeni. Università Ca' Foscari Venezia.
  18. ^ "Italiani in Romania". 20 March 2009.
  19. ^ "Analiză. Structura etnică a populației în urma recensământului". 4 March 2023.
  20. ^ Censimento degli italiani all’estero alla metà dell’anno 1927 (Roma, 1928: LX)
  21. ^ Scagno (2008)
  22. ^ Ionescu, 1904:90
  23. ^ Toader (1972)
  24. ^ Written in 1972, Amelia Toader's thesis on the Bellunese dialect spoken by some families of Greci is considered the first academic study of the village's Italian community.
  25. ^ "Osservatorio Balcani e Caucaso - Intervista "I friulani di Greci"".
  26. ^ Cristina Gafu; Chetan Nubert. "Insule de conservare a identităţii etnice. Istroromânii". Philologica Jassyensia (I). Editura Alfa: 159–167.
  27. ^ Dematteo (2018)
  28. ^ a b Centro estero delle Camere di Commercio del Veneto; Antenna Veneto Romania (2002). "Indagine sulla presenza imprenditoriale veneta in Romania". Indagine Sulla Presenza Imprenditoriale Veneta in Romania.
  29. ^ Antenna Veneto Romania (2003). "Indagine sulla presenza imprenditoriale veneta in Romania". Indagine Sulla Presenza Imprenditoriale Veneta in Romania: 8.
  30. ^ a b "Comune di Faenza - Città gemellate".
  31. ^ "Sito Ufficiale "Casa Faenza"".
  32. ^ "Casa Faenza a Timisoara".
  33. ^ Antenna Veneto Romania. "Relazione attività 2003". Relazione attività 2003: 13–14.
  34. ^ a b Violeta P. Popescu. "Alcuni aspetti delle relazioni culturali italo-romene nel corso del tempo".
  35. ^ "Etimologia del ethnonym rumena (romano)".
  36. ^ Rotondi (2017, pp. 62–84)
  37. ^ Federico Donatiello (December 2014). "I primi contatti con il Teatro Occidentale in Romania: le traduzioni dei melodrammi di Pietro Metastasio nei Principati Danubiani alla fine del XVIII secolo". Hiperboreea. 1 (2). Penn State University Press: 111–124.
  38. ^ Corina Popescu (2000). Verismul italian şi literatura română. Teatrul italian în România: 1871-1911. Editura Universitaţii din Bucureşti.
  39. ^ a b Carmen Burcea. "Ramiro Ortiz". Università di Bucarest.
  40. ^ Alice Marcu. Pentru istoricul catedrei de italiană de la Universitatea din Bucureşti. Vol. Studii Italiene 4 (1937). pp. 145–146.
  41. ^ Dimitrie C. Ionescu. "Cronica anului şcolar 1909-1910". Anuarul Universităţii din Bucureşti pe anul şcolar 1909-1910, al XVIII-lea anuar publicat de secretariatul Universităţii. Bucarest: Noua Tipografie Profesională.
  42. ^ "Istituto italiano di cultura di Bucarest".
  43. ^ "Corsi di lingua dell'Istituto italiano di cultura di Bucarest".
  44. ^ "La Scuola italiana di Bucarest".

Bibliography[edit]

  • Audenino, P. (2008). Migrazioni italiane. Milano: Mondadori.
  • Franzina, E. (2002). Storia dell'emigrazione italiana. Roma: Donzelli Editore.
  • Scagno, R. (2008). Veneti in Romania. Ravenna: Longo Editore.
  • Caritas italiana (2008). Immigrazioni e lavoro in Italia. Statistiche, problemi e prospettive. Roma: IDOS.
  • Toader, A. (2003). La componente italiana della civilizzazione nella provincia di Dobrugia (Romania), Iaşi: (unpublished conference paper) Comunitatea Italiana din România.
  • Toader, A. (1972). Descrizione del Dialetto Bellunese Parlato a Greci (Romania). Bucureşti: University of Bucarest.
  • Dematteo, L. (2018). La Corsa verso la Romania degli imprenditori italiani. Circolazioni, asimmetrie e narrazioni, in A. Gouez (a cura di), Fabbriche d'Europa, Studi & Ricerche 69, Notre Europe.
  • Rotondi, A. (May 2017). "Il Grande Attore in Romania tra influenza italiana e francese e identità nazionale". Acting Archives Review (13): 47–84.
  • Popescu, C. (2000). Verismul italian şi literatura română. Teatrul italian în România: 1871-1911. Bucureşti: Editura Universitaţii din Bucureşti.
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